Smart Notes – 9. Psychology & Sports

CBSE Physical Education Class 12

About Lesson

9.1 Personality : Concept and Definitions

Personality : Personality usually means that an individual is much more than his outer appearance.

Personality also refer to the pattern of thoughts, feeling, social adjustment and behaviour etc.

Different of personality :

Physical dimension
Mental dimension
Social dimension
Emotional dimension

Sheldon an American psychologist divided Personality on the basis of three physical structures.

(1) Endomorph : Endomorphs have a round body, characterised by wide hips, narrow shoulders, small legs, arms and round delicate body. They have a tendency to put on extra body fat on their body parts such as arms and thigh. They are relaxed, easy going, fun loving and sociable in nature.

(2) Mesomorph : Mesomorphs are likely to have an athletic and attractive physique. Their shoulders are broad, narrow waist, arms and legs strong. They have more muscles than fat. They are courageous, energetic, adventurous, assertive and competitive in nature.

(3) Ectomorph : Ectomorphs have narrow shoulder, thin arms and legs, a narrow face and a flat chest. They are slim and tall. They are generally thoughtful, quite, self-conscious and pessimistic and are not fond of physical activity.

Importance of Physical education in development of personality :

It helps in shaping up the personality of an individual.
It provides a free, pleasurable. immediate and natural expression of the innate desires of an individual.
It develops a feeling of sense of belonging, hapiness, experiences etc. which makes a balanced individual.
It improves physical appearance. Physical activities are conducive to the growth and development of the physique.
The mental exercise enhances the intellectual abilities and broadens one’s mental horizon. It has a great impact on one’s personality.

Difference between endomorph and mesomorph

Endomorph

Mesomorph

Individuals have

• Short arms and legs

• Rounded physique

• Undeveloped muscles

• High fat storage

• Pear shaped body

• Less ability to compete in sports

• Less active

Individuals have

• Balanced body composition

• Athletic physique

• Strong muscles

• Fat evenly store all over the body

• Rectangular shaped body

• Can excel sports

• Capable of doing lot of activities

The role of sports in developing the personality of an individual such as :

(a) Physical appearance : One of the primary aspects of one’s personality is his physical appearance. Both boys and girls are much concerned about how they look. Physical activities are conducive to the growth and development of physique. Workouts in gym are becoming a must for all the youngsters of today. This develops their outer personality which creates a good impression.

(b) Social interactions : Physical activities and sports provide opportunities of interaction between athletes coming from different regions, speaking different languages, having different castes and religions. This helps an individual to develop multi-dimensional personality. Moral values through sports is responsible for development of sound and ideal character, a very essential attribute of personality.

(c) Analytic thinking : This mental exercise enhances the intellectual abilities of the participants and broadens their mental horizon. It is well said that physique is of no use if not governed by analytical thinking, analyzing and interpreting new situations.

(d) Disciplined and assertive : In sports one learns to make sincere efforts, which reflect positively in the development of an individual’s personality. Code of discipline is fundamental in learning of any physical activity and effective participation in sports.

(e) Well balanced individual : Physical activities also provide recreation which go a long way in producing a perfectly happy, satisfied and balanced individual having a pleasing and energetic personality, zest for life experiences. Physical activities and sports are the basic needs of human beings which help in the development of a well-balanced personality.

The role of psychologist for a team preparing to participate in competition :

Sports psychologists are mental game coaches who help athletes improve performance through mental training.
According to John Luther, sports psychology is an area which applies psychological facts and principles to learning performance and associated human behaviour.
According to K.M. Burns, sports psychology for physical education deals with the physically fitness of an individual through their participation in games and sports.
According to Singer, sports psychology explores one’s behaviour in athletics.

The following points the importance of sports psychology :

Enhancement of Physiological Capacities : Sports psychology plays a major role in the enhancement of physical capacity such as strength, speed and flexibility of sport persons, as it is well-known that psychological capacities or powers can increase physiological capacities.

Learning the Motor Skills : Sports psychology plays a major role in motor skills learning, helping to develop physiological and psychological readiness. Physiological readiness is the development of strength, flexibility and endurance, while psychological readiness is related to the learner’s state of mind. Sports psychology is also helpful in the cognitive stage, a social-active stage and the autonomous stage of motor skill learning.

In understanding the behaviour : Sports psychology is an important tool for understanding the behaviour of athletes and sports persons in competitive sports. It helps coaches understand the interest, attitude, instincts, drives and personality of sports persons. It also plays a role in medication of behaviour in various sports situations.

In controlling the emotions : Sports psychology is essential for controlling the emotions of sports persons during practice and competition. These emotions can lead to spontaneous changes in behaviour, such as anger, disgust, gear, negative self thinking and feeling of ownership. Sports psychology helps to balance the arousal of emotions, which improves performance.

In preparation of athletes psycho-logically for competitions : Sports psychology is an important part of preparing athletes for competitions, providing psychological tips and creating the will to win. It is needed for both national and international competitions.

Role in the emotional problems of sports persons : Sports psychology plays a vital role in enhancing the performance of sports persons by helping them manage stress, tension and anxiety. It also helps to develop concentration, confidence, emotional control and commitment, which are important for successful performance in sports and games.

9.1.1 PERSONALITY TYPES

Type-A : They have high sense of time and always try to complete their task in time. They are always found busy. They can be easily aroused to anger.

Type-B : They are extrovert in nature. They complete their work steadily. They enjoy their achievement and always focus on game not on winning or losing. They try to do at the last movement.

Type-C : They are not so assertive and always suppress their emotions and desires. They are very susceptible to depression as compared to other types of personalities. They are introvert in nature. They try to spend maximum time on finding about how the thing work.

Type-D : They resist any form of change and prefer the monotony of routine. They are not adventuresome and avoid responsibility. They are always having a fear of rejection. The individuals are the depressed ones; they live a very poor and short span of life.

9.1.2 JUNG’S CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONALITY TYPES

Carl Jung published a book Psychology Typen (Psychology Types) proposed a theory of personality based on two aspects :

Jung’s topology is based on personality attitude (introvert and extrovert) and personality functions (Sensing, Intuitive, Thinking, Feeling).
He was the first to introduce the concept of introversion and extroversion to psychology.
His purpose was to demonstrate the complexity of human typology and its consequences.

9.1.2.1 Personality Attitude :

Which is distinguished as Extrovert and Introvert.

Introvert

Extrovert

• Jung’s theory states that introverts are people who are primarily interested in their own mental self and prefer to be withdrawn from external reality.

• They prefer to live in their own inner world of feelings and thoughts and often take pleasure in solitary activities such as reading, writing, or meditating.

• They tend to shy away from public interactions and social connects and are less vocal with people around them, preferring to be reserved and within themselves.

• They are more analytical before speaking and prefer to create their own virtual and imagery world.

• Jung’s theory states that people with an extrovert personality are the opposite of those with an introvert personality.

• Extroverts are more broad-minded, are highly socialized, and enjoy human interactions.

• They are enthusiastic, talkative, assertive, and gregarious, and enjoy large social gatherings.

• They also work well in groups.

Carl Jung characteristics of Introverts and Extroverts

Introvert

Extrovert

• Interested in their own self reserved

• Self-aware and introspective

• Take pleasure in reading, writing

• Tend to shy away from public

• Think before acting

• Highly socialized Broad-minded

• Expressive and enjoy centre of attention

• Meet unknown people easily

• Bold, outgoing and optimistic person

• Action oriented

9.1.2.2 Personality Functions :

Introverts and extroverts have a preferred pattern of dealing with situations, which can be divided into four basic ways :

Feeling : People use their emotional aspects involve making decisions based on values and effects, rather than logic.
Thinking : Thinking is the ability to evaluate information objectively based on evidence and principles.
Sensing : People use their senses to perceive the world through facts, evidence, data and details, and are good at looking and listening to understand the world.
Intuitive : Intuition is a preference for perceiving the world through concepts, theories and abstractions, used to understand the situation and people around them.

Extroverted

Introverted

Thinking

• Extroverted thinking involves segmenting, organizing, systematizing, applying logic, structuring, checking for consequences, setting boundaries, guidelines, and parameters, sorting out different colours and styles, and thinking about consequences.

• Extroverts are able to see the world through complex and solid ideas, and often work in fields related to Math and Science.

• Introverted thinking involves analysing, categorizing, evaluating, figuring out principles, checking for inconsistencies, clarifying definitions, and analysing options for using principles.

• It is based on internal knowledge and is often used in science fields.

Feeling

• Extroverted feeling refers to connecting with others, organizing to meet their needs, maintaining societal, organizational, or group values, adjusting to and accommodating others, and deciding if something is appropriate or acceptable.

• These people base their judgements on factual, known information and form their assessments on social values and beliefs.

• Introverted feeling involves valuing, considering importance, reviewing for incongruity, evaluating something based on truths, clarifying values, and deciding if something is worth standing up for.

• These people often work in the art field.

Sensing

• Extroverted Sensing is characterized by experiencing the immediate context, taking action in the physical world, noticing changes and opportunities for action, accumulating experiences, and scanning for visible reactions and relevant data.

• These individuals are not influenced by other opinions and often work as taste-testers or proof-readers.

• Introverted Sensing involves reviewing past experiences, seeking detailed information and links to what is known, recalling stored impressions, accumulating data, recognizing the way things have always been, and looking for hidden meanings.

• These people often work in the art field.

Intuitive

• Extroverted Intuition is characterized by interpreting situations and relationships, picking up meanings and interconnections, and being drawn to change “what is” for “what could possibly be”.

• They base their meanings on facts rather than feelings, and are usually inventors.

• Introverted Intuition leads people to foresee implications and likely effects without external data.

• They base their decisions on their inner desires and find warmth through subjective ideas.

• These people usually work as artists or religious figures.

9.1.2.3 Ambivert

Ambivert is a new term used by Jung to describe someone who falls in the middle of the introvert/extrovert continuum.
It is a blend of traits from the introvert as well as the extrovert, with some specific strengths.
It is supported by many other later psychologists and is used to explain that there is no such thing as a pure introvert or extrovert.

9.1.3 BIG FIVE THEORY OF PERSONALITY

(1) Openness : The assessment of openness traits shows that the person is

Imaginative
Insightful
Having variety of interest
With degree of intellectual curiosity
Creative
Able to enjoy the new experiences
Able to learn new changes and concept

(2) Conscientiousness : The assessment of this trait show :

Compete with life challenges
Controlled and self-discipline
To act dutifully
To plan and to organize
Work independently
To do hard work

(3) Extroversion : The assessment of this trait shows that the person :

is energetic
has positive emotions
has Assertiveness
is sociable
is talkative
is fun loving
has friendly nature or has tendency to make new friends
Able to get affection from others

(4) Agreeableness : The assessment of this trait show that such person :

has sense of cooperation
is systematic
is kind
is friendly and gentle

(5) Neuroticism : The assessment of these trait shows that the parson

has emotional stability
is able to control anger
is able to control the level of anxiety
is able to protect himself from depression.

Big five theory and their characteristics :

Trait	Description
Openness	Being curious, original, intellectual, creative and open to new ideas.
Conscientiousness	Being organised, systematic, punctual, achievement, oriented and dependable.
Extraversion	Being outgoing, talkative, socialism and enjoying social situations.
Agreeableness	Being affectable, tolerance, sensitive, trusting, kind and warm.
Neuroticism	Being anxious, irritable, temperamental and moody.

Personality traits according to the Big Five theory :

Openness :

Openness is a dimension of personality that can range from being imaginative, humorous, intellectual, creative, curious, and open to ideas to being closed to experience, suspicious and rigid.
In sports, athletes or Individuals scoring high on Openness are characterized by demonstrating new ideas and skill execution initiatives.

Extraversion :

Extraversion is a dimension of personality that ranges from having enthusiasm, energy, positive emotions, talkativeness, assertiveness at one end to being reserved, sober and cautious at the other.
People who score high on extraversion are characterized by high sociability, outgoing and have a tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others.
Those who score low on extraversion prefer solitude or smaller groups, prefer activities alone, and avoid large social situations.
Those with high extraversion and openness are more likely to participate in adventure and risky sports due to their curious and excitement seeking nature.

Conscientiousness :

Conscientiousness is a combination of well-organised, careful, responsible, hardworking and dependable individuals.
Numerous studies have found a positive correlation between conscientiousness and cognition, and individuals high on conscientiousness have been found to perform better in academics and sports.

Agreableness :

Agreeableness is a measure of a person’s compassionate behaviour, ranging from good-natured, cooperative, trusting to suspicious, irritable and uncooperative.
People who score low on agreeableness tend to be antagonistic towards others and are described as rude and unkind.

Neuroticism :

Neuroticism is a personality trait that can range from being poised, calm and composed to nervous, anxious and excitable.
Individuals with high neuroticism are characterized by unpleasant emotions and impulsive and hostile behaviour, while those with low neuroticism tend to be calm and even-tempered.
Athletes’ sports performances are highly influenced by neurotic characteristics, and modern findings suggest exercise and physical activity as an alternative therapy to manage neurotic behaviours.

9.2 Motivation

Motivation means to be inspired to do something to achieve the desired goals. Or Motivation is an internal force on which our behaviour or activity depends.

Techniques of motivation :

Goal setting
Verbal comments (praise or blame)
Healthy sports environment
Knowledge of results
Rewards and punishments
Positive self talks
Motivational music
Positive attitude
Spectators

9.2.1 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

(1) Intrinsic motivation : Motivation from within, no external pressure. You alone are determining the action. Self determination and motivation builds interest of desirability.

Intrinsic is also referred to as internal motivation, which drives an individual from within to naturally pursue actions that provide fun, pleasure, fulfilment or challenge.
It includes satisfaction of needs felt by the individual and is directly linked to the individual’s instincts or urges.

Techniques of motivation :

Goal setting
Self appraisal
Auto suggestion
Positive attitude

(2) Extrinsic motivation : Comes from outside forums. Forced to do something because of rewards etc. Outside motivation helps us overcome fear of failure or feeling that task is very tough.

The word extrinsic is derived from the Latin word ‘entrinsecus’, meaning outward.
It means that the source of satisfaction does not come from within and the behaviour is influenced by external forces or drives.
The reasons for action are not part of an individual’s character, but are due to urges from outside such as prize, money, praise, or even punishment.

Techniques of motivation :

Praise, appreciation and criticism
Record of success and achievement
Better facilities
Pep talk by coaches/trainer
Cash prizes, certificates and trophies
Role of pear group and society

Motivation ‘Drive to strive’ :

Intrinsic motivation :

Extrinsic motivation :

(a) Learning

(b) Social contact

(d) Respect

(a) Salary

(b) Awards

(d) Appreciation

Differentiate between Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation :

Intrinsic motivation	Extrinsic motivation
• Natural motivation and internal	• Always from outside external factors
• Depends upon emotional needs, biological needs, personal needs and social needs	• Rewards, prizes, social recognition
• Satisfaction, behaviour, happiness	• Job, teachers, parents.
• Inner desire, force comes from inside interest	• Appreciation

	Intrinsic motivation	Extrinsic motivation
Definition	Driving force to pursue an action for fun, joy or any other inner satisfaction	Driving force to pursue an action due to reward, trophy, money, promotions or praise
Factors	Internal factors like joy, enjoyment	Externala factors like reward, promotion, praise
Method	Goal setting strategies, Family and Community support	Associating success with future benefits, awards, promotions and avenues
Benefits	Long term benefit of maintaaianing a behaviour	Helpful to initiate or create a drive towards a desired behaviour when internal factors are missing

Goals setting : (1) Short-term, (2) Middle-term, (3) Long-term

Goal should be made clear.
Knowledge of progress, achievable
According to capabilities, realistic
Need to set short term goal
Challenging
Goals can be reset
Grading players

Reinforcement : It is a statement which can alter the behaviour in a positive manner. It is used for behaviour modification.

9.2.2 MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES

The motivational techniques are based on the following approaches mentioned :

Cognitive Approach : Expectancy theory and Goal Setting theory suggest that people are motivated for tasks where the probability of success is higher than failure, while goalsetting theory suggests that a stronger drive for actions and behaviour is fuelled by quality of information on time set and difficulty level.

Time Bound : The task should be time bound
Set Complexity level of task : Task should be neither too difficult nor too easy
Make task Specific : Task instructions should be precise about what is to be done
Define Purpose of task : Outcome of the task should be clear and defined.

Pedagogical Approach : Teaching coaching pedagogies used in sports training for planned outcomes is essential for motivating athletes towards a consistent action or behaviour. Making training enjoyable, engaging athletes in decision making, and providing valuable feedback are essential components.

Guided Discovery Method : Cooperative learning with opportunities for athletes to engage in decision making is an effective strategy for motivating them, despite lack of independence and training environment.
Valuable Feedback System : A strong supportive system should be provided to give athleteswith feedback which can provide them with specific direction to motivate them to push harder for a longer period of time.
Fun-based Training : Training should be challenging and task-oriented for optimal performance, but should also involve fun and enjoyment to motivate athletes.
Individualized Training Program (ITP/IEP): Individualized training programmes or individualized education programmes are essential for athletes to set their own targets, challenges and difficulty levels to avoid burnout and keep them motivated.

Social Support Strategy :

Participation in sports and exercise is heavily influenced by social networking and perception of people around them.
Positive social support from peers, family members, and friends helps to develop healthy habits and drive to exercise.
Initiating group activities and engaging family and peers in sports participation helps to increase participation.

Facilitation Approach :

Incentives and Rewards : Awards and rewards can help motivate athletes to pursue sports with consistency and continuity.
Valance of Reward : Prizes and awards can be used to motivate athletes, but it is important to understand the need and expectation of the individual athlete in order to value the reward. An athlete may value being made the captain of the team more than being rewarded with a pay hike. To be motivated, athletes must be awarded by considering what is desired or expected by an individual.
Performance appraisals : Motivation and praise should be provided to athletes to create confidence and encourage them to plan their actions. Regular appraisal of performance should be provided and appropriate rewards given.
Quality Support and Facilitation : Motivation for an action is influenced by the quality of support provided, which must be studied, diagnosed and provided to ensure high standards of behaviour.

9.2.3 MOTIVATION AND SPORTS

Four motives towards sports and exercise behaviour can be identified.

Physical wellbeing
Psychological wellbeing
Performance achievement
Status and Power (assertive achievements).

9.3 Exercise Adherence

Exercise adherence refers to the extent to which the individual maintains an active involvement in physical exercise and acts in accordance with the advised interval, exercise dose, and exercise dosing regimen despite opportunities and pressures to withdraw.

Or Exercise adherence can also be referred as a self-regulated, voluntary behaviour directed towards maintaining an exercise routine for a prolonged period of time after initial phase of adoption.

9.3.1 REASON TO EXERCISE

Why people find a reason to exercise, participate in fitness and engage in recreation sports can be understood by the following aspects :

Overcoming Social Physique Anxiety : Exercise combined with proper diet can help people achieve their goal of being lean and fit, overcoming social physique anxiety through exercise, fitness and recreation sports program engagement.
Reduced risk of disease : Lifestyle factors play an important role in the rise of health issues, such as hypertension, obesity, and lack of physical activity. To overcome these issues, exercise and fitness are essential.
Recreation : Recreation is an essential reason to exercise, as it provides fun, enjoyment, and physical benefits. People are facing the challenge of finding time and activity for recreation.
Mental Relaxation : Exercise is an effective way to reduce stress and depression, providing economic and social benefits. People should participate in exercise for mental relaxation.
Socialization : People look for opportunities to engage with community and socialize with friends, peer groups, colleagues, etc. Through participation in team sports, group exercises, and other fitness programs, people can overcome social isolation, tackle loneliness, and build camaraderie. Socialization qualifies as a reason for people to engage and experience exercise and sports programs.

9.3.2 BENEFITS OF EXERCISE

Health Benefits : Humans have been working hard and putting in physical effort for survival since early times, and today people strive to lead a healthy life. Physical activity, exercise and sports have become a preferred activity to keep themselves healthy.

Reduces risk of Cardiovascular Disease : Exercise and a regular cardiofitness regime can help prevent cardiovascular diseases by strengthening the heart and improving circulation, which increases blood flow and lowers risk of heart diseases.
Weight Management : Regular exercise is essential for weight reduction, as dieting and calorie control are not effective.
Strengthens Bones and Muscles : Regular exercise helps build strong bones and slow the loss of bone density. Doing muscle-strengthening activities can help increase or maintain muscle mass and strength.
Reduces risk of some Cancers : Exercise reduces risk of cancers like cancers of the colon, breast, uterus, and lungs.
Reduces risk of Falls : Balance and muscle-strengthening activities can help reduce risk of falling in older adults.

Provides Stress Relief : Stress can lead to physical and mental health issues, such as increased susceptibility to illness, lack of energy, sleep issues, poor judgment, weight gain, depression, anxiety, and more.
Increases Happiness : People engage in physical activity for extrinsic goals, such as weight loss, improving physical appearance, but also to experience joy, happiness and satisfaction. Exercise increases the production of endorphins, which can improve the mood and make the individual feel relaxed and happy.
Promotes Self-Efficacy : Self-efficacy is the belief that one is capable of achieving a specific goal through regular exercise and participation in sports.
Promotes Social Cohesion : Human beings are social animals who prefer to engage in group activities due to the opportunity to socialize and interact with other people. Sports and group exercise programmes help prevent boredom and social isolation by helping participants feel connected with the society and community. Group cohesion developed among participants of exercise groups and sporting members is an important reason for exercise.
Enhances Value Orientation : Knowledge and understanding about a healthy lifestyle and importance of regular physical activity creates a value orientation among individuals to initiate exercise and later continue with exercise behaviour. These values include discipline, enhanced learning process, self-actualization, social responsibility and ecological integration.
Cognitive Benefits : Regular aerobic activities improve attention control, information processing speed, and brain function. They also increase heart rate and stimulate the production of hormones that can enhance the growth of brain cells. Exercise serves to increase the following mental function :

Attention Control : Regular physical activity and exercise can improve attention and concentration among all ages, even at a moderate level.
Improves Memory : Physical activity has been shown to improve intelligence, reduce memory loss, and reduce Alzheimer’s disease.

Mental Health Benefits : Regular physical activity and exercise can help to improve mood and reduce anxiety and depression.

Exercise as therapy for emotional disorder : Physical activity is an effective treatment for mental disorders such as depression and anxiety, producing improved mood, enhanced self-esteem, and increased productivity.
Fitness as moderator of life stress : Regular physical activity helps reduce stress and tension, creating a positive attitude towards work.
Runners High : Regular physical activity promotes mental alertness, mood upliftment, liberation, suppressed discomfort, and heightened well-being.

Psychological Well-being : Regular physical activity, sports and exercise can lead to positive changes in mental and physical well-being, such as increased blood flow to the brain, decreased muscular tension, and improved metabolism.
Personality Enhancement : Physical activity and exercise have a significant influence on personality, with regular participation and long-term engagement in physical activities resulting in greater extraversion and stability.
Develops Leadership Qualities : Engagement in an exercise programme and sports provides an opportunity for individuals to experience adversities and learn from them, developing qualities of leadership.
Special Population :

Clinical Population : Regular physical activity and psychomotor activities can help people with intellectual disabilities improve their skills in daily living.
Elderly Population : Ageing is delayed among those who are regular participants in physical activity, even low intensity bouts of exercise.

Physical exercises for childhood and adulthood :

Childhood	Adulthood
(1) Exercise must be planned which include co-ordinative ability like catching, throwing, jumping and kicking.	(1) Adult should do brisk walking, bike riding, dancing, and swimming for active life style.
(2) Exercise must be structured which improve body control and strength.	(2) They should also indulge in running, aerobic exercise, weight training, calisthenics for muscular strength.
(3) In this stage children should be introduced to competitive sports to develop social consciousness.	(3) They should engage themselves in resistance training for at least two days a week.
(4) Exercise like running, swimming, cycling, resistance exercise and fast work or rapid movement exercise must be included for wholesome development of the child.	(4) They should actively engage themselves in team events or endurance activity.

9.4 Strategies for Enhancing Adherence to Exercise

Simple exercise in the beginning
Exercise in the morning
Concentrate only on yourself
Set appropriate goal
Take support of others
Select interesting exercises
Be punctual
Make a schedule
Be aware about your progress
Variety in exercise program
Be regular

The essential strategies for enhancing adherence to exercise :

Goal setting : A moderate bout of acute exercise (20-30 min) is beneficial for improving psychological effects of exercise. However, exercise performed above lactate threshold (LT) is perceived as unpleasant and should be avoided due to overexertion and discomfort. SMART goals should be set.
Adding variety to exercise : Lack of new variety of exercise can lead to boredom and dropping out. Adding variety to the exercise program through adoption of new strategies, changing methods, using new equipment, reinventing logistics and adding new members can induce fresh energy and increase adherence to exercise.
Social support enhancement : Increasing social support is the engagement of friends and other members in physical activity, exercise and sports to help fuel goal achievement. It involves creating a system of buddy partners, youth leaders, mentors and family members to motivate and flag-bearers for exercise.
Contract : Chronic exercise habits or regular exercise behaviour are important for maintaining benefits, and promoting participants for signing an intent to comply through a written contract has been found to be more effective in exercise adherence.
Reinforcement Interventions : Positive and negative reinforcement approaches have been found to be effective in maintaining exercise behaviour and motivating participants to engage in physical activity.
Feedback : Providing feedback to participants in physical activity can provide direction and energy to prolong and continue exercise behaviour. Individualized feedback can create higher levels of motivation and prove effective towards exercise adherence.
Process Orientation : Exercise programmes based on outcome goals or product goals can be effective in the initial stages of adoption, but it is difficult to maintain the drive with prolonged exercise behaviour. Helping people shift from process goals to product goals which are more intrinsic in nature will help them become lifelong exercisers.
Problem Solving : Identify obstacles and barriers to physical activity goals, generate and implement solutions, evaluate outcomes, and choose different solutions if needed.
Health Risk Appraisals : Health risk appraisals provide participants with relevant information about their current health, risk factors and level of fitness, which can enhance motivation and help with goal setting.
Health Education : Participants should seek information from experts on the benefits of exercise, proper exercise techniques, and results. This will help them understand why and what they are doing and give them the confidence and motivation to participate in long-term physical activity. Health-care providers should also have influence over participant’s physical activity and the implementation of interventions.

9.5 Aggression

Important Definitions :

Aggression is behaviour that is hostile and violates other people’s rights.
Reactive aggressive behaviour is unplanned and impulsive, and is usually a response to feelings of anger, fear, or a need to retaliate against someone.
Proactive aggressive behaviour is calculated and planned action that has some motive other than harming someone.

Aggression : The term aggression refers to a type of behavior that can result in both physical and psychological harm to one self/others or any object in the environment.

Or Aggression is an assertive behaviour where a player plays within the rules of sports at very high intensity but has no intention to harm an opponent.

Aggression is a behaviour that can be seen, not an emotion that occurs inside a person.
Aggression is intentional behaviour to harm or injure, and can be physical or psychological example hitting, pushing or abusing someone purposely, with an intent to hurt.
The victim wants to avoid harm.

9.5.1 TYPES OF AGGRESSION

Aggression is a behaviour with a goal of harming or injuring another being motivated to avoid such treatment.

(a) Hostile aggression : Hostile aggression is a type of aggression that is committed in response to a perceived threat or insult. It is unplanned, reactionary, impulsive, and fuelled by intense emotion, resulting in physiological hyperarousal. It is also known as reactive aggression.

Role :

To cause harm physical or psychological.
The intent of action is to physically or mentally harm the other person due to dislike, enmity, or due to the person being on the opposing team or side. Non-legitimate measures or illegal methods are used to do so.
Hostile aggression is impulsive

For Example :

Deliberate bouncer in cricket
A boxer who punches an opponent below the belt or an athlete who uses abusive words to mentally harm another player is hostile aggression.

(b) Instrumental aggression (Channelled aggression) : Instrumental aggression is harmful behaviour engaged in without provocation to obtain an outcome or coerce others.

Role :

Aggression is used for non-aggressive goals, such as winning, getting money, prestige, or gaining any other advantage.
It is not motivated by anger or enmity.
Instrumental aggression is learned behaviour

For Example :

Elbowing and injuring a player to gain a competitive advantage
Late tackling to stop an opponent from scoring a goal.

(c) Assertive behaviour : Use of legitimate physical or verbal force to achieve one’s purpose.

Role :

Legitimate force is used against opponent player/team.
Psychological discomfort is caused due to unusual effort and energy expenditure.

For Example :

Sledging in cricket matches.
Tennis players use a strong and hard forearm top spin stroke to attack their opponent.
Posturized dunking is when a basketball player drives and performs a posturized dunk with force.

Difference between hostile, instrumental and assertive aggression.

	Hostile	Instrumental	Assertive
Intent	Harm or Suffering	Harm or Suffering	No harm
Primary Goal	Harm or Injure	Win or Advantage	Win or Advantage
Process	Non-Legitimate	Non-Legitimate	Legitimate
Emotion	Anger	No anger	Unusual effort and energy expenditure
Explanation	Self-justification instead of apology	Offer apologies

9.6 Psychological Attributes in Sports

9.6.1 SELF-ESTEEM

Self-esteem is a belief in oneself, respect for the self, and confidence in the self.

Self-esteem is a person’s evaluation of, or attitude toward, themselves.
It is centered around a belief in the self, respect for the self, and confidence in the self.
It reflects a person’s physical self-image, view of their accomplishments and capabilities, and values and perceived success in living up to them, as well as the ways in which others view and respond to them.
It is important for performers to seek esteem from others, as it is associated with increases in self-esteem and positive feelings about the body.
Research has shown that exercise is a powerful motive behind marathon runners, cyclists, and other exercisers.

Participation in physical activities enhances self-esteem among children :

Improve physical self
Self-confidence
Ability to solve problem
Stop comparing yourself to others
Self-discipline
Non-blaming behaviour
Good self-care
Self-respect
Own appearance
Beliefs
Control on emotions and behaviours

9.6.2 MENTAL IMAGERY

The use of the ‘mind’s eye’, or imagery, or the mental creation or re-creation of sensory experiences in the mind, is the most popular mental training technique used by athletes.
Imagery can be used to aid relaxation and focusing, and is divided into external and internal imagery.
It helps us to learn and practise techniques, and de-sensitises us to the anxiety of competitive situations.
Coaches from around the world use imagery more than any other mental training technique and feel that it is the most useful technique used with their athletes.
All athletes have the potential to increase their imagery abilities through systematic practice, with increases in imagery ability enhancing the effectiveness of imagery training.

How to practice Imagery :

Mental imagery techniques have been implemented with various models and strategies.
The PETTLEP framework is an acronym representing a seven point checklist of guidelines to be followed when devising an imagery intervention for athletes. These guidelines include Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Learning, Emotion, and Perspective.
Mental Imagery intervention and training can be effective in enhancing performance.

Benefits of imagery :

Athletes use imagery for various purposes, such as skill learning, strategy development, rehearsal, competition preparation, mental skill development, and coping with sport stressors.
Acquisition and improved performance of skills and strategies
Modification of attention focus and other cognitions.
Regulation of arousal and anxiety.
Effective in enhancing self-confidence, motivation and self-control

Body image : Body image is how and what you feel about your body. Or The perception that a person has of their physical self.

Factors affecting Self-Esteem and Body Image :

Puberty and adolescent period (body undergoes number of changes).
Media image (comparing with media images)
Family and society (can have both positive and negative effect on body image)
Peer group (peer pressure)
Natural ageing process (may adversely influence body image)

9.6.3 SELF TALK

Secret or open personal dialogue in which the athlete interprets feelings, perceptions, and convictions and gives himself instructions and reinforcement is known as self-talk. Self-talk is a powerful tool for controlling thoughts and influencing feelings.

How to make self-talk to be effective : For self-talk to be effective, it is suggested that self-talk statements be :

Brief and phonetically simple
Logically associated with the skill involved
Compatible with the sequential timing of the task being performed.

Types of self talk : Three primary categories of self-talk include task-specific statements, encouragement and effort, and mood words. These three categories are further clarified below:

Task-specific statements relating to technique category of self-talk refers to words or statements that reinforce technique. For example, in the tennis volley, the word “turn” might be used in association with preparation for stepping into the volley.
Encouragement and effort are words or statements that provide self-encouragement to persevere or to try harder. For examples include “You can do it” to prepare for an anticipated play in softball.
Mood words category of self-talk refers to words that precipitate an increase in mood or arousal. For example, the mood words “hard” or “blast” might be used in conjunction with a play in football or soccer.

Benefits of self talk :

Building and developing self-efficacy : Self-talk can lead to the belief that a person is competent and able to perform tasks efficiently and effectively.
Skill acquisition : Learning a new skill requires persistence, effort, and dedication. Self-talk can help an athlete become proficient in a new skill by changing bad habits and learning new good habits.
Creating and changing mood : Mood words are powerful motivators because they convey meaning and can be used to create a desired or undesirable mood. For example, an athlete may use the words “go” or “explode” to increase power needed to get out of a sprinting block quickly.
Controlling efforts : Athletes need to be able to sustain effort during long practices or competitions, and self-talk can help them do so. Words and phrases such as “pick it up,” “stay with it,” or “pace” can be effective in controlling effort.
Focusing attention : It is important to stay focused and concentrate on the task at hand, as athletes often get tired and their minds can wander. This can be especially problematic when a coach is teaching an important concept.

9.6.4 GOAL SETTING

Goal setting is a mental training technique used to increase commitment to achieving a specific standard of proficiency on a task within a specified time.

Or Goal setting is a process of establishing a level of performance proficiency which should be reached within a prescribed time period.

Athletes focus on three types of goals :

Outcome Goal : Outcome goals are successful implementations of process and performance goals that help us stay focused on the bigger picture, such as winning a sport or achieving a top rank in school. Examples of outcome goals include winning a sport, losing the desired amount of weight, or scoring a top rank in school.
Performance Goal : Athletes should focus on achievements that are independent of other competitors or teammates. Performance goals are more flexible and controllable for athletes, allowing them to continually raise and lower goal difficulty levels to remain challenged and successful in their pursuit of exciting outcome goals. These goals help in tracking progress and give us a reason for continuing the hard work. For Example striking a score of 100 in an innings or making 50 passes in a match.
Process Goal : Focus on specific behaviour or task throughout a competition, training or task to lock in optimal performance images and plans. This behaviour reflects proper and effective techniques for executing a specific athletic task and plans. For example focusing on the defender rather than ball or focusing on position of arm toward target while shooting. When repeated for a period of time, it should help in attaining performance goal and outcome goals.

Principles of Goal Setting :

Make goals specific, measurable, and observable.
Clearly identify time constraints.
Use moderately difficult goals; they are superior to either easy or very difficult goals.
Write goals down and regularly monitor progress.
Use a mix of process, performance, and outcome goals.
Use short-range goals to achieve long-range goals.
Set team as well as individual performance goals.
Set practice as well as competition goals.
Make sure goals are internalized by the athlete.
Consider personality and individual differences in goal setting.

Characteristic of effective goal :

SMART helps athletes remember five important characteristics of well-stated goals.

S : Specific goals are those that focus on achieving a specific goal, such as shooting 80% accuracy in free-throw shooting, but not becoming a better basketball player.
M : Measurable goals are those that can be quantify, in the sense that you know exactly how close you are to achieving the goal while general goals such as becoming a better server in tennis are not.
A : Action-Oriented Goals are goals that have action steps and action plans to help athletes stay focused and energized. They help everyone see how their part of the work is connected to other parts of the work and to a larger purpose.
R : Realistic goals should be attainable and withing the capability and capacity of the athlete. They should not be too high or too low, as setting goals that are too high can be discouraging and leave the athlete dissatisfied.
T : Timely–A well-stated goal should be timely in that it specifies time constraints and reflects an appropriate amount of time to accomplish it. Athletes should create a deadline for the task and try to meet it on time.

Benefits of Goal Setting :

Improved focus attention
Develop persistence
Mobilisation of efforts
Developing new learning techniques
Increased motivation

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